Abstract
Metasurfaces precisely control the amplitude, polarization and phase of light, with applications spanning imaging, sensing, modulation and computing. Three crucial performance metrics of metasurfaces and their constituent resonators are the quality factor (Q factor), mode volume (Vm) and ability to control far-field radiation. Often, resonators face a trade-off between these parameters: a reduction in Vm leads to an equivalent reduction in Q, albeit with more control over radiation. Here we demonstrate that this perceived compromise is not inevitable: high quality factor, subwavelength Vm and controlled dipole-like radiation can be achieved simultaneously. We design high quality factor, very-large-scale-integrated silicon nanoantenna pixels (VINPix) that combine guided mode resonance waveguides with photonic crystal cavities. With optimized nanoantennas, we achieve Q factors exceeding 1,500 with Vm less than 0.1 \({(\lambda /{n}_{{{{\rm{air}}}}})}^{3}\). Each nanoantenna is individually addressable by free-space light and exhibits dipole-like scattering to the far-field. Resonator densities exceeding a million nanoantennas per cm2 can be achieved. As a proof-of-concept application, we show spectrometer-free, spatially localized, refractive-index sensing, and fabrication of an 8 mm × 8 mm VINPix array. Our platform provides a foundation for compact, densely multiplexed devices such as spatial light modulators, computational spectrometers and in situ environmental sensors.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the plots and other findings in the work are available in the article and the supplementary information file, and are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.
Code availability
The source code for the calculations conducted in this study is available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.
References
Kuznetsov, A. I. et al. Roadmap for optical metasurfaces. ACS Photonics 11, 816–865 (2024).
Chen, H.-T., Taylor, A. J. & Yu, N. A review of metasurfaces: physics and applications. Rep. Prog. Phys. 79, 076401 (2016).
Lin, D., Fan, P., Hasman, E. & Brongersma, M. L. Dielectric gradient metasurface optical elements. Science 345, 298–302 (2014).
Tittl, A. et al. Imaging-based molecular barcoding with pixelated dielectric metasurfaces. Science 360, 1105–1109 (2018).
Zhang, S. et al. Metasurfaces for biomedical applications: imaging and sensing from a nanophotonics perspective. Nanophotonics 10, 259–293 (2021).
Tseng, M. L., Jahani, Y., Leitis, A. & Altug, H. Dielectric metasurfaces enabling advanced optical biosensors. ACS Photonics 8, 47–60 (2021).
Hu, J. et al. Rapid genetic screening with high quality factor metasurfaces. Nat. Commun. 14, 4486 (2023).
Zhang, X., Kwon, K., Henriksson, J., Luo, J. & Wu, M. C. A large-scale microelectromechanical-systems-based silicon photonics LiDAR. Nature 603, 253–258 (2022).
Li, N. et al. Spectral imaging and spectral LIDAR systems: moving toward compact nanophotonics-based sensing. Nanophotonics 10, 1437–1467 (2021).
Chen, W. T., Zhu, A. Y., Sisler, J., Bharwani, Z. & Capasso, F. A broadband achromatic polarization-insensitive metalens consisting of anisotropic nanostructures. Nat. Commun. 10, 355 (2019).
Lawrence, M. et al. High quality factor phase gradient metasurfaces. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 956–961 (2020).
Jang, M. et al. Wavefront shaping with disorder-engineered metasurfaces. Nat. Photonics 12, 84–90 (2018).
Rogers, C. et al. A universal 3D imaging sensor on a silicon photonics platform. Nature 590, 256–261 (2021).
Colburn, S., Zhan, A. & Majumdar, A. Metasurface optics for full-color computational imaging. Sci Adv 4, eaap9956 (2018).
Arbabi, A., Horie, Y., Bagheri, M. & Faraon, A. Dielectric metasurfaces for complete control of phase and polarization with subwavelength spatial resolution and high transmission. Nat. Nanotechnol. 10, 937–943 (2015).
Li, S.-Q. et al. Phase-only transmissive spatial light modulator based on tunable dielectric metasurface. Science 364, 1087–1090 (2019).
Panuski, C. L. et al. A full degree-of-freedom spatiotemporal light modulator. Nat. Photonics 16, 834–842 (2022).
Zangeneh-Nejad, F., Sounas, D. L., Alù, A. & Fleury, R. Analogue computing with metamaterials. Nat. Rev. Mater. 6, 207–225 (2020).
Silva, A. et al. Performing mathematical operations with metamaterials. Science 343, 160–163 (2014).
Gao, L., Qu, Y., Wang, L. & Yu, Z. Computational spectrometers enabled by nanophotonics and deep learning. Nanophotonics 11, 2507–2529 (2022).
Wang, Z. et al. Single-shot on-chip spectral sensors based on photonic crystal slabs. Nat. Commun. 10, 1020 (2019).
Cihan, A. F., Curto, A. G., Raza, S., Kik, P. G. & Brongersma, M. L. Silicon mie resonators for highly directional light emission from monolayer MoS2. Nat. Photonics 12, 284–290 (2018).
Benea-Chelmus, I.-C. et al. Gigahertz free-space electro-optic modulators based on mie resonances. Nat. Commun. 13, 3170 (2022).
Kuznetsov, A. I., Miroshnichenko, A. E., Brongersma, M. L., Kivshar, Y. S. & Luk’yanchuk, B. Optically resonant dielectric nanostructures. Science https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aag2472 (2016).
Schuller, J. A. et al. Plasmonics for extreme light concentration and manipulation. Nat. Mater. 9, 193–204 (2010).
Koshelev, K. et al. Subwavelength dielectric resonators for nonlinear nanophotonics. Science 367, 288–292 (2020).
Barton, D. et al. High-Q nanophotonics: sculpting wavefronts with slow light. Nanophotonics 10, 83–88 (2021).
Overvig, A. C., Shrestha, S. & Yu, N. Dimerized high contrast gratings. Nanophotonics 7, 1157–1168 (2018).
Akahane, Y., Asano, T., Song, B.-S. & Noda, S. High-Q photonic nanocavity in a two-dimensional photonic crystal. Nature 425, 944–947 (2003).
Hu, S. & Weiss, S. M. Design of photonic crystal cavities for extreme light concentration. ACS Photonics 3, 1647–1653 (2016).
Miura, R. et al. Ultralow mode-volume photonic crystal nanobeam cavities for high-efficiency coupling to individual carbon nanotube emitters. Nat. Commun. 5, 5580 (2014).
Altug, H., Englund, D. & Vučković, J. Ultrafast photonic crystal nanocavity laser. Nat. Phys. 2, 484–488 (2006).
Tanabe, T., Notomi, M., Kuramochi, E., Shinya, A. & Taniyama, H. Trapping and delaying photons for one nanosecond in an ultrasmall high-Q photonic-crystal nanocavity. Nat. Photonics 1, 49–52 (2006).
Matsko, A. B. & Ilchenko, V. S. Optical resonators with whispering-gallery modes-part i: basics. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 12, 3–14 (2006).
Armani, D. K., Kippenberg, T. J., Spillane, S. M. & Vahala, K. J. Ultra-high-Q toroid microcavity on a chip. Nature 421, 925–928 (2003).
Gorodetsky, M. L., Savchenkov, A. A. & Ilchenko, V. S. Ultimate Q of optical microsphere resonators. Opt. Lett. 21, 453–455 (1996).
Lin, G., Diallo, S., Henriet, R., Jacquot, M. & Chembo, Y. K. Barium fluoride whispering-gallery-mode disk-resonator with one billion quality-factor. Opt. Lett. 39, 6009–6012 (2014).
Zhang, J., MacDonald, K. F. & Zheludev, N. I. Near-infrared trapped mode magnetic resonance in an all-dielectric metamaterial. Opt. Express 21, 26721–26728 (2013).
Mirzapourbeinekalaye, B., Samudrala, S., Mansouree, M., McClung, A. & Arbabi, A. Free-space-coupled wavelength-scale disk resonators. Nanophotonics 11, 2901–2908 (2022).
Zeng, B., Majumdar, A. & Wang, F. Tunable dark modes in one-dimensional ‘diatomic’ dielectric gratings. Opt. Express 23, 12478–12487 (2015).
Wang, S. S. & Magnusson, R. Theory and applications of guided-mode resonance filters. Appl. Opt. 32, 2606–2613 (1993).
Quan, Q., Deotare, P. B. & Loncar, M. Photonic crystal nanobeam cavity strongly coupled to the feeding waveguide. Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 203102 (2010).
Zain, A. R., Johnson, N. P., Sorel, M. & De La Rue, R. M. Ultra high quality factor one dimensional photonic crystal/photonic wire micro-cavities in silicon-on-insulator (SOI). Opt. Express 16, 12084–12089 (2008).
Srinivasan, K. & Painter, O. Momentum space design of high-q photonic crystal optical cavities. Opt. Express 10, 670–684 (2002).
Seidler, P., Lister, K., Drechsler, U., Hofrichter, J. & Stöferle, T. Slotted photonic crystal nanobeam cavity with an ultrahigh quality factor-to-mode volume ratio. Opt. Express 21, 32468–32483 (2013).
Hu, S. et al. Experimental realization of deep-subwavelength confinement in dielectric optical resonators. Sci. Adv. 4, 2355 (2018).
Almeida, V. R., Xu, Q., Barrios, C. A. & Lipson, M. Guiding and confining light in void nanostructure. Opt. Lett. 29, 1209–1211 (2004).
Choi, H., Heuck, M. & Englund, D. Self-similar nanocavity design with ultrasmall mode volume for single-photon nonlinearities. Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 223605 (2017).
Macchia, E. et al. Single-molecule detection with a millimetre-sized transistor. Nat. Commun. 9, 3223 (2018).
Raveendran, M., Lee, A. J., Sharma, R., Wälti, C. & Actis, P. Rational design of DNA nanostructures for single molecule biosensing. Nat. Commun. 11, 4384 (2020).
Kovarik, M. L. & Jacobson, S. C. Nanofluidics in lab-on-a-chip devices. Anal. Chem. 81, 7133–7140 (2009).
Yamamoto, K., Ota, N. & Tanaka, Y. Nanofluidic devices and applications for biological analyses. Anal. Chem. 93, 332–349 (2021).
Kim, S. J., Song, Y.-A. & Han, J. Nanofluidic concentration devices for biomolecules utilizing ion concentration polarization: theory, fabrication, and applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 39, 912–922 (2010).
Leggett, G. J. Scanning near-field photolithography–surface photochemistry with nanoscale spatial resolution. Chem. Soc. Rev. 35, 1150–1161 (2006).
Acknowledgements
The authors thank D. McCoy, F. Pan, B. Bourgeois and A. Dai for insightful discussions. The authors acknowledge funding from a NSF Waterman Award (grant number 1933624), which supported the salary of J.A.D.; the MURI (grant number N00014-23-1-2567), which supported the chip design, fabrication and salary of V.D. and S.D.; and the US Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences (DE-SC0021984), which supported the chip characterization and salary of S.A. and H.C.D. V.D. was additionally supported by the Office of the Vice Provost for Graduate Education at Stanford through the Stanford Graduate Fellowship in Science and Engineering. H.B.B. acknowledges support from the NSF OCE-PRF (grant number: 2205990), the HHMI Hanna H. Gray Fellowship and the Stanford Sustainability Accelerator. S.D. was additionally supported by the Department of Defense (DOD) through the National Defense Science and Engineering (NDSEG) Fellowship Program. Part of this work was performed in part in the nano@Stanford labs, which are supported by the National Science Foundation as part of the National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure under award ECCS-2026822. Part of this work was performed at the Stanford Nano Shared Facilities (SNSF), supported by the National Science Foundation under award ECCS-2026822.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
V.D., J.H., M.L. and J.A.D. conceived and designed the experiments. V.D. conducted the theory and numerical simulations. V.D., S.D., S.A., H.C.D. and P.M. fabricated the nanostructured samples. V.D., H.B.B. and S.D. performed the optical characterization experiments. V.D. and K.C. analysed the collected experimental data. A.S., F.S. and V.D. conducted the scanning electron microscopic characterizations. J.A.D. conceived the idea and supervised the project, along with M.L., J.H. and H.B.B. on relevant portions of the research. All authors contributed to the preparation of the manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
J.H., F.S. and J.A.D. are shareholders in Pumpkinseed Technologies, Inc. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Nanotechnology thanks Ho Wai Howard Lee, Vladimir Tuz and the other, anonymous, reviewer for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Notes 1 and 2 and Figs. 1–13.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dolia, V., Balch, H.B., Dagli, S. et al. Very-large-scale-integrated high quality factor nanoantenna pixels. Nat. Nanotechnol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-024-01697-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-024-01697-z
